Venezuela

The Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela is the most northerly of the countries of South America and the sixth in size. Venezuela was discovered by Christopher Columbus on his third journey to the Indies in 1498. Venezuela occupies an area of 912,050 square kilometers (352, 143 square miles) and is surrounded by the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean on the north; on the east by the disputed territory of English Guyana; on the south by Brazil; and on the west by Colombia.

The population in 2000 was estimated to be 23.5 million. The distribution by age groups is as follows: 0-14 years, 33 percent; 15-64 years, 63 percent; 65 years and over, 4 percent. Venezuela is a highly centralized country; about 75 percent of the people are located in only 20 percent of the national territory. Therefore, the main educational, professional, industrial, and health centers are located in large cities: Caracas, Maracaibo, Barquisimeto, Ciudad Guayana, Puerto La Cruz, and Valencia. Since colonial times Caracas has been, and still is today, the main political and administrative unit of the country; it enjoys the reputation of being one of the most cosmopolitan cities in Latin America, as evidenced by its modern architecture and highways. Caracas is about 40 minutes from the international airport, which serves as a gateway between North and South America.

Three main ethnic groups make up the Venezuelan population: European, African, and Indian. Despite the historical and cultural differences that have traditionally separated these groups, Venezuela is not a country of racial rivalry. The country can be considered a rarity in terms of racial integration; however, there are few pockets of regions that are inhabited by predominantly Indian or African descendants. The mestizo population amounts to 67 percent, the whites to 21 percent, the blacks to 10 percent, and the Amerindians to 2 percent. Compared with other Latin American countries, Venezuela never had a large Indian population. After its discovery by Spain, the Indian population was highly diminished, mainly because of the European dominance in strategic warfare planning and warfare superiority (horses, guns, and steel), but also because the natives lacked immunity to many of the diseases brought by the Europeans (Diamond 1999). Fewer than 150,000 Indians were counted in the 1981 census, and more than one third were Guajiros, a group located in Zulia, a northwest state bordering Colombia. There are also a significant number of Indians in Amazonas, a southern state bordering Brazil. Some of these tribes still speak their native dialects, but Spanish is the official language of this predominantly Catholic nation.

Major social and economic divisions were predominant in Venezuela during the colonial times. Education was primarily Catholic and only available to a small minority, which was basically comprised of Europeans and their descendants, typically known as criollos. Because of the rapid political developments in the Spanish Empire and in the colonies, these levels of inequalities were soon to disappear. On the one hand, Napoleon invaded Spain in 1808, thus weakening the legal and economic foundation of the Crown. On the other hand, at the end of the eighteenth century and the early nineteenth century, a small group of educators, intellectuals, and priests were highly influenced by the literature of the Enlightenment. This literature praised the rights of the individual, the ideals of justice and freedom for all, and promoted education of the masses as a means to achieve democracy and self-realization. The Enlightenment laid out the philosophical and legal principles for the emergence of nationhood, first in Europe, and later in Latin America.

Simón Bolívar (1783-1830), better known as "The Liberator," (because of his leading role in the independence of Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia) was a strong believer in these philosophical principles. Therefore, it is no coincidence that historians from different schools have considered Bolívar's contribution to Spanish-American independence as a product of political European thought. In particular, the philosophies of Montesquieu and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, foundations for the French Revolution (1789), have been considered political tools for the independence of Spanish-America. Thus, the idealistic vision of equality expressed by these philosophies can be considered the backbone of Bolívar's proclamation of free education in all regions.

The ideals of equality upheld by the French Revolution are highly relevant not only because of social justice, but also because of their influence on the national educational systems in the colonies. Different features of the Venezuelan educational system, such as the degree of centralization, the structure of schools and the well-rounded curriculum, are also a product of this European influence. According to Montesquieu, the only way to acquire the virtues of a Republic was through a good educational system. It was no coincidence, then, that Bolívar added a moral branch to his form of government. His famous motto clearly depicts this philosophy of the time: "moral y luces son nuestras primeras necesidades" ("morals and education are our primary needs"). When Bolívar died in 1830, there were 96 schools in the whole country. By 1839 the number of schools had more than doubled, reaching 215 schools. However, the number of school-age students who attended school was very low, only about 4.7 percent in 1840. Although education had become more accessible than in previous years, it was still a privilege available to limited numbers of students at any level. By 1844, there were 510 university students; between 1805 and 1848, the university graduated 247 bachilleres (high school diploma holders) and 45 licenciados (university diploma holders) and between 1827 and 1832, some 247 bachilleres and 48 licenciados. In 1844 there was a population of 1,218,716, and the school enrollment figures included 11,969 students in primary education, 621 students in secondary education, and 510 students at the university level.

Although the emphasis on education was present throughout the nineteenth century, the goal of free and compulsory education was not strongly pursued until the regime of President Antonio Guzmán Blanco (1829-1899). On June 27, 1870 he issued a decree concerning free and compulsory elementary education as the responsibility of the national government. This initiative made possible the organization of the whole educational system, establishing the Ministry of Public Education (1881). Also, the first teachers' schools were established. Within five years, the number of children in school rose from about 8,000 to nearly 23,000. Two universities were created: the National University of Zulia in Maracaibo (1891), followed by the National University of Carabobo in Valencia (1892). However, the National University of Carabobo was closed and did not reopen until 1958. By 1897 more attention was paid to secondary education which consisted of secondary, normal, and technical schools. Secondary education consisted of six years of education in two three-year cycles, after which the student was awarded the degree of bachiller. In 1909 the enrollment figure for primary students was 48,869, of whom only 5,799 attended private schools; the majority of students attended the national, federal, and municipal schools. There were 3,565 students in secondary education, 1,343 of whom attended private schools. In terms of enrollment, the major cities had the leading number of students, while the provinces were almost in a state of illiteracy.

During the long dictatorship (1909-1935) of Juan Vicente Gómez (1857-1935), there were no major developments in the educational system in Venezuela. In 1935, after his death, the need for a teachers' college led to the creation of the National Pedagogic Institute in Caracas. This period also witnessed a significant expansion of public education to the provinces. The official curriculum for primary schools first appeared in 1944. This curriculum remained in effect for nearly 30 years. The dictatorship (1948-1958) of Marcos Pérez Jiménez also represented a low point in the educational system in Venezuela. The regime did not support an open and liberal education, and fearing a political uprising, several universities were closed or were under-funded. The education budget was reduced, and the number of graduating or entering students drastically decreased. During this time, the country also went through a period of massive human rights abuses; political parties were banned, as was the importation of progressive literature. The government was inclined to support the development of the physical infrastructure of the country (highways, public buildings, etc.) rather than the intellectual growth of the population.

In 1958, the triumph of democracy over dictatorship brought new light and hope to the educational system in Venezuela. Several universities opened throughout the country, and new plans were conceived for the whole country. At least six years of primary school were compulsory until 1980, when the Organic Law of Education was passed. In 1961 the new constitution established the full support of the government for a plan backing free education at all levels. However, private education still had more prestige in the Venezuelan society. Although the government was able to improve the standards and attract high quality teachers with higher salaries, the private sector was more successful in modernizing the educational system and attracting students by offering bilingual and more international-type education.

Since the 1970s the Venezuelan educational system has expanded substantially, in both enrollment figures and the number of teachers at each level. Primary enrollments rose by 30 percent and secondary enrollment by over 50 percent, while university enrollment nearly doubled. In 1985 the literacy rate for individuals 15 years or older was 88.4 percent. One other relevant factor is that Venezuela is a very young country; about 75 percent of the total population is under 35 years of age. Although this is a relatively common figure for a Latin American country, it is no coincidence that Venezuela's prosperous economy, mainly because of the oil boom of the 60s and 70s, has also contributed to the population growth. It is expected that by the year 2035, this nation will double its current population. However, due to the ups and downs of the oil market in recent times, this heavily oil-dependent nation faces new social, economic, and educational challenges. The nation will have to try to continue to run the current infrastructure with a reduced and dwindling operating budget. At the same time, it will need to expand its educational system in accordance with its population growth. And lastly, it will need to incorporate new technologies into the classroom in order to keep up with the rest of the world.

At the outset of the twenty-first century, an unprecedented era of sweeping reform began to change the structure of Venezuela's educational system. The national government undertook to revise the range and goals set by the previous administrations. Pilot schools were created, with the participation of the community, in order to evaluate new programs. The outcome of this phase is yet unreported, but the evaluation process has sparked criticism. One area of conflict exists between supporters of a government-backed school system that is very nationalistic in principle and other sectors that back an open and liberal system of education at all levels.